Topic 3: Difference Matters – Stereotypes, Prejudice, and “Aren’t We All the Same?”

Activity 6: Reading – Difference Matters

Please read the following text which introduces you to considering how difference matters.

^{This activity contains text from Chapter 3: Self and Identity and Identity in Intercultural Communication for the Community College (2nd ed.) by Karen Krumrey licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Minor changes made for readability and to add illustration cited from other source.}

Stereotypes and Prejudice

Whenever we encounter someone, we notice similarities and differences. While both are important, it is often the differences that are highlighted and that contribute to communication troubles.

We don’t usually perceive similarities and differences on just an individual level though. In fact, we place people into in-groups and out-groups based on the similarities and differences we perceive.

Your culture and identity is a strong influence on your perception. Whenever you interact with others, you interpret their communication by drawing on information from your previous experiences. Those experiences constitute assumptions, attributions, and generalizations based on our experiences. Stereotypes can aid us in predicting behaviour and reduce our feelings of uncertainty, but when we stereotype others, we replace human complexities of personality with broad assumptions about character and worth based on group affiliation. We stereotype people because it streamlines the communication process. Once we’ve categorized a person as a member of a particular group, we can form a quick impression of them (Macrae et al., 1999), which might be efficient for the communication process, but frequently leads us to form flawed impressions.

Although stereotyping is almost impossible to avoid, and most of us presume that our beliefs about other groups are valid, it’s crucial to keep in mind that just because someone belongs to a certain group, it doesn’t necessarily mean that all the defining characteristics of that group apply to that person. To assume you know something about a stranger, or even a friend, based on a stereotype will often make you look foolish, and likely hurt or offend the other person.

Prejudice involves a negative preconceived judgment or opinion that guides conduct or social behaviour. Specific types of prejudice have their own labels that often end with -ism (e.g. racism, sexism, ableism, etc.). Treating people with prejudice is also about making assumptions or taking preconceived ideas for granted without question. Again, with potentially ignorant, and possibly even dangerous, consequences.

The flip side of emphasizing difference is to claim that no differences exist and that you see everyone as a human being. The trap of assumed similarity or thinking that all people are basically similar, denies cultural, racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and many other valuable insightful differences that are important to the human experience.

Activity 7: Personal Reflection Journal – Reflection Question 4

Please answer the following reflection in any format you like (such as in writing, a video, note form, or a drawing). Save your reflection responses in one large file so you can refer to them later in the course if needed. Please continue to read the course text after completing the reflection question.

Communication Theory of Identity proposes four layers of identity: personal, relational, enactment, and communal (Hecht, Warren, Jung, & Krieger, 2005). These theorists contended that the internalization, externalization, and social enactment of identity are perpetuated by and through communication.

Communication Theory of Identity was developed in the 1980s and reframed identity as a social phenomenon rather than a singular, unified self. This shift highlighted humans’ inherently social nature, with identities formed and negotiated through communication, relationships, and communities. Hecht’s theory advanced in the 1990s with the conceptualization of identity as layered across four frames: personal (self-concept), enacted (expression through communication), relational (identities in relationships), and communal (shared identities within groups). These frames interpenetrate, influencing and being influenced by one another in dynamic ways, such as how personal and communal understandings of gender coexist and interact.

Communication Theory of Identity emphasizes the complexity of identity management and its intersection with social dynamics. For instance, Hecht’s work on Jewish American identity explored the fluid and multifaceted nature of communal identities, their stigmatization, and how these identities are negotiated in various contexts. The theory also examines the conflicts arising from competing identities and the strategies used to manage them, which vary depending on the nature of relationships and societal conditions. Additionally, identity gaps—discrepancies among the four frames—pose challenges for communication and mental health, as shown in studies on immigrant experiences and intergenerational relationships.

Communication Theory of Identity applications extend to youth identity and health communication, as demonstrated by the “keepin’ it REAL” drug prevention program. This culturally grounded curriculum, developed by Hecht and collaborators, leveraged Indigenous narratives and salient identity frames to resonate with its audience. The theory’s principles have guided the design of health messages tailored to group identities, enhancing their relevance and effectiveness. Communication Theory of Identity also bridges identity and behaviour, offering insights into how identities influence communication strategies, relationships, and community engagement.

In recent years, Communication Theory of Identity has expanded into exploring identity in digital contexts and rural communities. Researchers like Janice Krieger and Jennifer Warren have used Communication Theory of Identity to investigate rural identity and online health behaviour among marginalized groups, respectively. These studies reveal how identities are expressed and negotiated in virtual spaces, underscoring the theory’s relevance in a globally connected, digital age. Communication Theory of Identity’s comprehensive approach to identity provides valuable insights into understanding the multifaceted nature of human interaction, both in traditional and emerging contexts.

Media Attributions

Millar, S. (2018, July 23). Yellow family sign [Photograph]. Unsplash. https://unsplash.com/photos/yellow-family-sign-KhStXRVhfog

References

Hecht, M. L., Warren, J. R., Jung, E., & Krieger, J. L. (2005). A Communication Theory of Identity: Development, Theoretical Perspective, and Future Directions. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 257–278). Sage Publications Ltd.

Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Schloerscheidt, A. M., & Milne, A. B. (1999). Tales of the unexpected: Executive function and person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(2), 200–213. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.200